Column to Beam Connection

The steel columns are tied up with horizontal beams at floor levels to support roofs. A skeleton in the form of a frame is thus formed by vertical columns and horizontal beams. The beams may thus be riveted to the flanges or web of vertical column. Column to beam connections are of two types.

(i) Framed Connections.

(ii) Seated Connections.

Abbreviations(Short Forms) used in the field of civil engineering

Abbreviations are short forms of long words or names. These are used to save time & space. 

TERM   and ABBREVIATIONS   

            

ACRE --- ACRE
Aggregate --- AGG
Air-brick --- AB
Angle --- L
AsbestosS --- ASB
At --- @
Beam --- B
Brick work --- BWk
Cast iron --- CI
Cement concrete --- CC
Centre line --- CL
Centre to Centre --- C/C
Centimetre --- cm
Concrete --- cone*
Cross-section --- CS
Cubic metre ---  m3
Cubic centimetre ---cm3
Cubic millimeter ---mm3
Damp Proof Coursee --- DPC
Diameteer ---  Dia: Ø
Drawing --- DRG
Drawn --- DRN
Elevation --- EL
Figures --- FIG
Flushing Cistern --- FC
Formation level --- L
Full supply level --- FSL
Galvanised iron --- GI
Glazed ware pipes --- GWP
Greese trap --- GT
Gram --- gm
Ground level --- GL
Gully --- G
Height --- HT
Inspecton chamber --- ICH
Intercepung trap --- IT
Kilometre --- km
Longitudinal Section --- LS
Manhole --- MH

Metre --- m

Wild steel --- MS

Millimeter --- mm

Natural surface level --- NSL

North --- N

Per --- PER/

Percent --- 

Radius --- R

Rain water outet --- RWO

Rain water pipe --- RWP

Reduced level --- RL

Reference --- REF

Reinforced cement concrete --- R.C.C

Rising main --- RM

Rolled Section --- RS

Rolled steel joist --- RSJ or I

Shower bath --- SB

Sink --- S

Soil and vent pipe --- S & VP

Soil pipe --- SP

Spigot S socket --- S & S

Square --- SO

Square centimeters --- cm2

Square metre --- mm2

Square millimetre --- mm2

Stop valve --- SP

Tee --- T

Temperature --- Temp

Traced --- TCD

Vent pipe --- VP

Volume --- Vol

Waste pipe --- WP

Waste & vent pipe --- W & VP

Water closet --- W.C.

Weight --- Wt.

Wrought iron --- WI

Yard gully --- YG

Year --- Yr or a

Technical Terms Used In Flooring

(a) Base ;- The prepared surface on which the floor topping or under layer is laid is known as base. This normally consists of 100mm thick sand for ground floor. It is also known as base course.

(b) Under layer;- The course of material laid between topping and base is called under layer. It normally consists of lean c. concrete or lime concrete. lts thickness may vary between 80 to 100 mm.

(c) Topping;- The topmost layer of a floor laid over the under layer is known as topping. Sometimes, it forms the finished surface of the floor also. 1ts normal thicknes is taken as 40 mm.

(d) Floor finish: The special layers laid to form their upper surface or wearing surface, which normally
render surface finish is called tloor finish e.g. Mosaic or terrazo finish. It is normally 10 mm. to 30 mm. thick

Types Of Floors

Each type of floor has its own particular merits and thus ditferent type of floors may be used in different rooms at the same floor level.

i) Brick flooring.
(ii) C. Conc. inter locking tiles (precast),
(iii) Flag stone flooring.
(iv) Cement concrete or conglomerate flooring.
(v) Terrazo flooring and terrazo precast tiles tlooring
(vi) Mosaic flooring
(vii) Wooden flooring
(viii) Ceramic, vitreous tiles with different designs and colours floors. (Flooring tiles are stronger than
wall tiles.)

There are other types of floors, like Muram, asphalt, rubber, glass, linoleum floors etc., also. But these are specially used for specific purposes.

The basic concept of a Rcc retaining walls

1) it will not overturn.
2) the soil pressure under the toe will not exceed allowable bearing pressure of the soil.
3) the wall will not slide outward bodily due to thrust.
4) the components of the retaining wall will not rupture. R. C. C. retainin walls are of two types:
(a) The 1or cantilever retaining walls.
(b) The counter fort retaining walls.

R C C Retaining Walls

For greater pressures and high embankments or fillings R. C. C. retaining walls are used. These walls can withstand highly water-logged earth and water pressures. These walls are water tight. Construction of these walls is fast.
Design of these walls is precise and hence economical sections can be made. These walls can be speedily built and thus time and labour is saved.
The R. C. C. walls have a more sliding tendency than masonry walls. To check this the wall base is
sometimes provided with a key beam.

Structureal Forces ( External Force & Internal Force)

A frame structure is normally subjected to two types of forces.

(1) External Forces
These are external loads which a frame has to withstand. Self-weight, dead, live, wind or moving loads are called external forces.

While designing the shape and sizes of different members of a framed structure these loads are calculated by taking into account the type of material used for the frames and the weight of roof covering materials. These loads are systematically allowed to act on the frame. But for calculation purposes it is assumed that the joints share these loads and loads act at joints without causing any bending stresses in the frame's members. Due to these loads members are subjected to internal resistance put up by these members.

(2) Internal Forces
The internal resistance which develops in the members to withstand the eflect of external loads are known as internal forces. These are of two types i.e. Tension and Compression

Any member subjected to tension is called a tie and which is subjected to compression is known as strut.

FRAMED STRUCTURES

A steel structure formed by fabricating a number of steel sections is known as a framed structure. The
members in a frame are arranged in the form of triangles and fastened at joints by frictionless pins.

Retaining walls are classified into the following types according to the materials, used in their construction.

1. Dry stone retaining walls.

2. Masonry walls-Bricks or stones.

3. R. C. C. retaining walls.

Retaining Walls

Walls used to support filled in loose soil, earth or gravel are known as retaiming walks.

Certain walls are used to support the face of a cut-solid ground; such walls are called breast walls.

Abutments and wing walls of culverts, bridges and other irrigation projects are also made in the form of a retaining wall

Roofs are broadly classified into the following types.

1. Pitched, pent or sloping roofs.

2. Flat roofs.

3. Shell roofs and folded slabs, and

4. Domes.

Roofs

A roof is a covering on the enclosure made for a building. It is essentially provided to protect the inhabitants from the eflect of sun, rain, wind, etc... The type of roof depends upon the local climatic requirements. For plain regions, where the rain fall is less as compaired to hilly or coastal areas, flat terraced roofs are used, and for others sloping roofs are used. Light weight roofs consist of trusses and sloping roofs and are thus preferred for factories, godowns, big stadiums etc. where large areas are required to be roofed. Flat roofs help in providing more floor area for use in way of multistoreyed buildings.

Qualification Of Town Planner

Any degree or diploma required for the Associate Membership of the Institute of Town Planners (lndia) or that recognised by the Public Service Commission for the post of Asst. Town Planner.

Qualification Of Engineer

Degree in civil engineering or equivalent qualifications which makes one eligible corporate member of the Institution of Engineers (India).

Qyalification of Architect

Any degree or equivalent qualification in architecture as listed in Architects Act of 1972 or as requited for the Associate Membership of the Indian Institute of Architects and registration with the Council of Architecture.

Qualification of Supervisor

Certificate/diploma in architecture or engineering, prescribed for re- cruitment to non-gazetted services of the government + 5 years experience in building design, construction and supervision. (ITI Draftsman course + 5 years experience or Civil or Arch. Diploma + 2 Yearsexperience)

Role and Qualification of the Designer

■ It is clear that in a building project the designer has a key role in the following respects:

1. As an advisor to the owner regarding the feasibility of the project at the preliminary stage,

2. As a professional assigned to prepare the necessary technical documents to be submitted for development / building permit and later to prepare the specifications, schedule, working
drawings etc.,

3. As a co-ordinator of designs by specialist consultants who may be needed for the work,

4. As an agent of the owner in supervising the work, and

5. As an arbitrator in the building project between the owner and the contractor.

Classification of Building

■ According to the use or occupancy, buildings are classified into 9 major groups and their subdivisions as Follows.

★ 1 Residential Buildings
A-1 Lodging or rooming houses.
A-2 One or two family dwellings.
A-3 Dormitories.
A4 Apartment houses (flats).
A-5 Hotels.

★ 2 Educational Buildings
Any building used for college, school or day care purposes involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation related to the occupancy.

★3 Institutional Buildings
C-1 Hospitals and sanatoria.
C-2 Custodial Institutions (Homes for the aged, orphanages etc.).
C3 Penal and mental institutions (prisons, mental hospitals etc.).

★4 Assembly Buildings
D-1 Theatres with fixed seats for more than 1000 persons.
D-2 Theatres with fixed seats for less than 1000 persons.
D-3 Halis with capacity to hold more than 300 persons but with no permanent seating.
D-4 Halls for less than 300 persons but with no permanent seating.
D-5 Al other assembly buildings not covered in the above.

★ 5 BusinesS Buiiang
E-1 Offices, banks and professional establishments of doctors, lawyers, engineers etc.
E-2 Laboratories and research establishmenis.
E3 Computer installations.

★ 6 Merchantile Buildings
F-1 Shops, stores and markets with area up to 500 sq.m with storage incidental to the sales.
F-2 Underground shoPping centres or departmental stores with area more than 500 sq.m Witn storage and services incidental to the sales.

★ 7 Industrial Building
G-1 Buildings used for low hazard industries.
G-2 Buildings used tOr moderate hazard industries.
G-3 Buildings used tor hnigh hazard industries. (hazard means the possibility of ire, smoke, gas, or explosion endangering the life and
safety of the occupants)

★ 8 Storage Building
Any building primanly used for storage or sheltering of goods, vehicles or animals and witn the presence of relatively small number of persons in proportion to the area. (E.g. warehouses, grain stores, garages, truck terminals, stables etc.).

★ 9 Hazardous Buildings
Buildings used for storage, handling, manufacturing and processing of corrosive, toxic, inflammable, explosive or noxious materials.

Tee Junction

The Tee-junction is formed when two walls meet each other at right angles forming the letter "T" in plan. Cross-walls or partition walls form "T" junctions. Such junctions are laid similar to corner joints in diferent bonds.

STONE MASONRY

The art of construction with stones and mortar is known as stone masonry. Stones when created by breaking rocks are very irregular in shape and size. Quarries, from where rocks are taken out by blasting or other means provide this natural material for construction Purposes. Other stones, known as boulders, are collected from river and stream beds or dislodged from earthen mountains are also used in construction work. These may be used in their natural form or broken into handable sizes for construction purposes. Small bebbles and crushed boulders form the stone ballast or coarse aggregate in forming cement concrete.

Cutting of stones, giving them semi-finished or finished regular even size shapes give them the following type of masonry classitications:

1 Random Rubble Masonry
2 Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry
3 Coursed Random Rubble Masonry
4 Ashlar Masonry

BONDS

The systematic arrangement of laying bricks while making brick work is known as bond.
The bricks, owing to their unitorm size and shape, can be arranged in a variety of patterns, which give
rise to ditterent types of bonds. Bonding is essential to eliminate vertical joints. A wall or pillar having
vertical joints in one line does not behave as a homogenous mass to distribute superimposed loads.

■ Different types of bonds.
★English bond.
★Flemish bond.
★Heading bond.
★Stretching bond.
★Garden wall bond.
★Facing bond.
★Racking bond.
★Dutch bond.
★Enghsh cross bond.

Technical Terms used in brick work.

COURSE

This is a term applied to the row of bricks laid between bed or horzontal joints.
The thackness of each course is taken as 100 mm i.e., 90 + 10 = 100 mm (thickness of brick and
thickness of jount). 

BED JOINT
These are mortar joints normal to the pressure.

QUOINS
The external corner joints of walls are called quoins. Bricks or stone used to form such joints are known as quoins.

PERPENDS
The vertical Joints on the face of wall are called perpends.

STRETCHER
These are bricks laid on the face of walls with their length parallel to the face. A course in which the face brick are stretcher us known as stretcher course

HEADERS
These are bricks laid on the face of the walls with their widih parallel to the face. A course in which the face bricks are headers is known as header course

BATS
Pieces of bricks ate called bats. 1/2 brick is called half bat end 3/4 brick is known as bat.

QUEEN CLOSER
A brick cut length wise into half is known as queen closer. It is used next to quoin header io get is proper bond.

KING CLOSER
These are bricks cut in such a way that one end is half the width of a brick and other and is full width. These are used for lambs and reveals of doors and windows. These are also used as drip course

Types Of Foundation

• Spread footings foundation.
  
• Raft or mat foundation.
  
• Grillage foundation.
• Pile foundation.
• Inverted arch foundation.
• Well foundation.
• Stepped or benched foundation.

What is Foundation (Small Not)

The lowest part of the structure, below the plinth level is known as foundation. The function of a foundation is to distribute the load of the structure over a greater area so as to bring intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil. It should be built on a naturally or artificially created stable ground. Foundationsalso avoid spreading of subsoil and unequal settlement of the structure.

Masonry (Small Not)

The art of construction in brick or stone is known as masonry. When bricks are laid in mortar, it is known as
brick masonry; and if stones are used, it is called stone masonry.

Bricks and stones, if used together at the same "constructional place is called composite masonry. Mudorlime
or cement mortars Is used for binding bricks or stones.

Datailed Drawing

The art of representing technical structures with the help of paper drawing equipment is known as detailed drawing. The following details can be conveyed from a properly drawn drawing.
Shape, sizes, material used, location, placing and planning of different services, in short it conveys the whole formof the structure, on the paper before the materialisation of the structure.

Draughtsmanship

■ Draughtsman 
A person who is skilled or trainesd in the art of making drawings, writing or designs is known as draughsman.

■ Draughtsmanship
The art of making drawings, writings or designs by a trained person is called draughtsmanship.

■ lt is the job of a draughtsman to prepare working drawings of proposed projects or structures. To
execute the skill ettectively and accurately a draughtsman masters the art of Engineering Drawing.

Graphical Symbol For Drains & Pipes

■ A line with dashes = its symbol used for Soil pipe or combined drains

■A dotted chain Line = its Symbol used for Surface Drain

■ A Chain Line = its symbol  used for Pipes at high level

■ Full Line = its symbol used for Pipes at  skirting level

■Interrupted dotted line = its symbol used for pipes under floor

■Parallel double interrupted dotted lines = Its symbol used for Ventilating ducts, Space between the lines, Denotes width of ducts

■Flow of fluid in pipe = Its symbol used for Rise and direction of Flow

■ Flow of Fluid in Pipe = Its symbol used for Fait and direction of flow

Panelled & Glazed Doors

This is a most commonly fitted door. Itsblower is panelled and the upper 2/3 is glazed. It maintains privacy as well as allows light. It is used for schools, hospitals, Office and public building

■ Double Leafed Panelled & Glazed Door

■ Double Leafed Panelled Glazed Door (without Sash Bars)

Framed and Panelled Door

It consists of a framework of styles. rail and muntins or mullions of the same thicknesses. the space between the frames is filled with panels. Panels are sometimes flush with the other frame members or raised. Panels are given some decorative designs so as to add to the apperance of doors. All the frame members are provided with grooves so as to accommodate the panels.

■ Parts of Panelled Doors

■ Single Panel

■ Two Panel

■ Three Panels 

■ Four Panels 

■ Five Panels 

■ Six Panels 

■ Horizontal Six Panels 

■ Board Panels With Gun Shaped Styles

■ Fully Panelled Double Leafed Door

■ Two Panelled (Single Leaf) Foor With 12mm Thick & Moulded Mountings Most Commonly Used

Framad ledged battenend and braced door

It is the most improved form of battened doors. It has a frame all around to check the twisting and warping effect of battens. It may be made in single or double leaves. It is used for moderately priced structure like a stores godowns workshops and sheds.

Framed,Ledged,Battened & Braced Door Drowing (Double Leaf) All Dimension mm

Framed,Ledged,Battened & Braced Door Drowing (Single leaf)   

 (All Dimension mm)

Ledged battened and braced door

Ii is an improved form of the fist door and to protect the shutter from twisting it is provided with inclined members called as braces. It is also used for cheper type of constructions like it stores warehouses temporary sheds

Ledged and battened door

Ledged and battened door is the simplest form of door and is frequently used in place where appearance is not the main Criterion for example Court yard of quarters temporary construction toilets and ware house. It consists of battens normally tongued and grooved and fixed together. Three ledgere of horizontal members are fitted on the backside of there battens to form the shutter. each ledger is fixed near the top and bottom and the third is fixed in the middle

Ledged and battened door Front Elevatuon, Plan & Section  ( All Dimension mm)

Classification of Doors

Classification of doors depend upon the arrangement of pattern of a placing of different members forming the door shutter accordingly these are classified into the following types

• Ledged and battened door
• Ledged and battened and braced door 
• Framad ledged battenend and braced door
• Framed and panelled door
• Panelledand glazed door
• Fully glazed or Sash door 
• Louvered or ventian door
• Flush door 
• Wire gauged door
• Collapsible door.
• Rolling Steel shutters
• Half door with double action hinges 
• Special Door

Type of partition wall (Generally used)

• Brick partitions (plane, brick noggings, or reinforced brick work.)
• Clay or Terracotta hollow block partition.
• Cement concrete hollow blocks.
• Foam cement concrete blocks partition.
• Cement concrete slab partitions.i.e. Claddings. 
• Reinforced cement concrete partitions.
• Asbestos plain sheet partitions.
• Metal partitions.
• Glass partitions.
• Plastic or acrylic partitions.
• Fibrs glass partitions.
• Compressed board, thermocol, card board, plywood, hard board partitions.
• Lath wooden or Steel, with plaster on both sides. 
• Gypsum block partitions.
• Wooden partition.

what are the requirements of a Good Partition wall....?

• It should be light in construction.
• It should be easy to install and dismental.
• It should be light and sound proof.
• It sould be fire resisting.
• It should be elegant in a looks.
• It should be cheap or economical in construction.
• It could be taken upto the ceiling level or 2.5 to 3 metre height without the use of heavy props or stays.

What is Partition Walls

The walls cladding or Screens, which are used to divide a hall into rooms, corridors and cuboids are known as partition walls.
    Partition walls are basically non load bearing divided walls. Partitions have become a necessity these days most of the multistoreyed structures are made by a combination of columns and beams frames. The space between the columns and beams are built with divide walls. A big hall with a single roof overhead can be divided into number of rooms by providing partition. Partition walls can be made permanent or semi permanent.

What is Basement...?

Rooms built below ground level are known as basements. There is a danger of dampness penetrating from walls and floors;so sufficient damp proofing is provided in walls and floors to check it. Certain basements are being used as strong rooms by banks and treasuries and as such these are built with R.C.C. still these are to be protected against the hazords of dampness.

PLINTH

Part of the super structure between ground level and floor level is known as Plinth height. It depends upon the site. It should be 300-600mm above the nearest road or street level. It is better to increase the thickness of the wall in this portion so that it can safely with stand loads etc.. transferred by floors and fillings underneath the floors..

Plinth Beam fig

  Plinth 

                                                  

Foundation

The lowest part of the structure below the plinth level is known as Foundation. the foundation of a Foundation is to distribute the load of the structure over a greater area so as to bring intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil. It should be built on a naturally or artificially created stable ground. Foundations also avoid spreading of subsoil and unequal settlement of the structure.

■ Types of Foundation

• Spread Footings Foundation
• Raft or mat Foundation
• Grillage Foundation 
• Pile Foundation
• Inverted arch Foundation 
• Well Foundation
• Stepped or benched Foundation

Draughtsman

■ Draughtsman is second to Head Draughtsman.
           Duties

• To develop all the ideas given by head draughtsman into working drawings. 
• To prepare detailed estimate.
• To work out quantities of materials required.
• To prepare specifications.
• To do all calculation in respect of designs etc..
• To prepare site plans.
• To prepare comparative statements of tenders received.
• To hand over the drawings to tracer for tracing or copying.
• To prepare three dimensional views for clearity of proposed project.

Head Draughtsman

■ Head draughtsman is generally the incharge of a drawing office. He is designated as a Divisional or Circle head draughtsman

Duties 

• Planning of new projects.
• To prepare designs and rough sketches of proposed projects.
• To prepare project reports. 
• To collect field data from field staff.
• To prepare estimate of projects.
• To frame budget for the running of drawing office.
• To maintain correspondence.
• To check the work done by junior staff

Assistant Engineer Duties

■ Heads section the direct incharged of all work

Duties 

• Direct and immediate charge of all work in the section
• Responsible for execution and supervision of all works and prepare bills for payment
• Prepare estimates of new work
• Arrange labour, plants and materials required
  
• Subit periodically report to the superiors

Assistant Executive Engineer

■ Heads subdivision

Duties

• Direct inchargevof works
• To check measure at least 50 percentage of the work of every section
• Responsible for quality and progress of worker 
• Guides and control the Section Officers
• To keep account and submit to Executive Engineering 
• Check attendance of daily labour 
• Control expenditure and budget in the subdivision 
• To do the physical verification of the store
• Maintains cash book of the subdivision
• Call tenders and select the agency with in his power
• Verify and pass the bill within his power 
• Collect and remit the revenue of the department
• Scrutinise the estimate before submitting to the higher officers 
• Check and pass the nominal muster rule

Exective Engineer Duties

Circle are divided in to many divisions which are headed by Executive Engineer

Duties

• To decide the structural safety of building and approve the design 
• To sanction and estimates within his power
• To check and issue soundness certificate of building
• To accept tenders and fix the agency for execution
• To pass the bill of work done or supplies made
• To fix the rent for government buildings
• To maintain the accounts of the division and submitto the Assistant Engineer every month

Duties Of Superintending Engineer

Chief Engineer is divided into many circles which are headed by superintending engineers. He is directly responsible to the chief engineer

• Duties

1. To inspect various works in the circle
2. To control over schedule of rates and revise it every year
3. To Inspect the and divisional office at least one once a year
4. To review the progress of all important work
5. To report to the chief engineer about the working of circles

Duties of Chief Engineer in Civil Engineering

■ There are many chief engineer to head the department in PWD
■ Administrative and Technical head of the engineering department
■ Directly responsible to the government

• Duties     

1. To prepare the annual budget estimates
2. To control the expenditure and progress of works
3. To formulate new schemes and seek additional funds
4. To control subordinate officers 
5. To undertake periodical inspection of major work in the department
6. Administrative approval of works
7. Acceptance of tenders for works full powers
8. Sanction and approval of estimation of repair works
   

Organisational setup of public works department Position wise...!

• Minister for Public Works
• Chief Secretary
• Chief Engineer
• Superintending Engineer
• Executive Engineer (Divisional engineer)
• Assistant Executive Engineer (Sub divisional engineer)
• Assistant Engineer (Sectional engineer)
• Junior Engineer (Overseer 1)
• Overseer Grade 2

SITE PLAN DETAILS

The site plan shows the location of a building in a area. Further the site plan should show the following details. 1.The boundaries of the plot the north direction. 2.The position of the proposed building in the plot and the clearance from the boundaries. 3.The position of septic tank, soakpit, well and access. 4.The service line such as water mains and electric lines. The by-laws governing the clearance and distance between soakpit and well, road and building etc. are stipulated by the local bodies in the form of building rules.

PLAN, SECTION, ELEVATION

A building drawing is an important document giving all necessary information and details of construction. 

                              ■ Elevation

★ The elevation gives the front view of the structure in the finished stage. 

                                 ■ Plan

★ The plan gives the arrangement of the Rooms, position of Doors, Windows and Ventilators and the size of the Rooms. the method of obtaining the plan is also shown.

                               ■ Section

★ The details of construction from the foundation to the roof can be read from the sectional view. the method of obtaining the section is also indicated. the section should be selected so as to reveal maximum details

ELECTRICAL SERVICE PLAN

An electrical service plan shows the position of various electrical fitting and connection schematically. The symbols for the fitting are used to denote their positions. This is helpful for planning the wiring system.
A representative electrical service plan is given in this drawing. The power supply to the building is controlled by the Main switch. The distribution lines branch out from here to various load points

           Electrical Service Plan  ina Building 

                   Details Of Fan Clamps

             Symbols & Name Used in a Electrical Service Plan