These are used for transporting material and heavy machines from ground level to the upper or lower level as the need be.
Tuesday, May 5, 2020
Trolley-rope Ways
Trolleys made in the form of cabs are held on guy ropes and operated up and down between two different levels. These are mainly installed to connect two hillocks or two banks of a deep valley.
Ramps and Chutes
These are solid or inclined laid slabs between two floors situated at different levels. The normal gradients are 1 in 20 to 1 in 50. These are used in hospitals, multistoreyed parking area. Swimming pools and children parks also have ramps, which are used for recreational purposes.
Lifts
These are ventilated encased chambers which can be moved up and down in a shaft connecting different floors of a structure. There are high and low speed lifts. Lifts are electrically operated. Certain towers and sky-scrapers have lifts operating on outer faces of the structures. They are fixed with plexiglass and give the users a better view of the outside scenery around.
Escalators
These are steps fixed on very slow moving belts. These are called moving stairs. These help in reducing the climbing time of stairs and are used at public places having very high intensity of public movement. Like bus terminals, railway stations, air ports etc.
Steps
Steps made in the form of a series of rising footing is termed as stair. A couple of steps built in series is known as a flight. Stair can be made into many shapes and designs out of any building material.
Ladders
These are made of two side supports, called up rights, either of wood, bamboo, mild steel, cast iron or pipes spaced with horizontal rungs. These can be portable or fixed as the need be. Wooden rungs held into twisted upright ropes are also very light ladders; these are mainly used in ships, boats and sea- trailors etc. Such ladders are also used for painting and white washing in tall-buildings
Elements of Perspective
Step by step approach in making any perspective is explained by the following elements.
1. Select some suitable scale.
2. Draw the plan-incined or parallel to picture plane. This depends on selection of type of perspective.
3. Draw the line PP showing the picture plane in plan.
4. For making a good two-point perspective, draw one of the faces of the object inclined at 30° in plan.
The other face will be at 60°. It will be better to draw the largest face at 30°.
5. Mark the station point S. P. It should preferably be in the centre of the plan. !It can be placed to the right or left of the centre of plan depending upon the needed detail to be emphasised.
6. Below the plan, at a suitable spacing draw the ground line G. L.
7. Draw the horizon line H. L. at an height equal to the observer and parallel to the ground ine.
8. From S. P. draw lines S. P-1 and S. P-2 parallel to A D and A B to meet the P P line at 1 and 2.
9. From 1 and 2. draw vertical projections to meet H. L. at V. P1 and V. P2, thus giving the two vanishing
points.
2. Draw the plan-incined or parallel to picture plane. This depends on selection of type of perspective.
3. Draw the line PP showing the picture plane in plan.
4. For making a good two-point perspective, draw one of the faces of the object inclined at 30° in plan.
The other face will be at 60°. It will be better to draw the largest face at 30°.
5. Mark the station point S. P. It should preferably be in the centre of the plan. !It can be placed to the right or left of the centre of plan depending upon the needed detail to be emphasised.
6. Below the plan, at a suitable spacing draw the ground line G. L.
7. Draw the horizon line H. L. at an height equal to the observer and parallel to the ground ine.
8. From S. P. draw lines S. P-1 and S. P-2 parallel to A D and A B to meet the P P line at 1 and 2.
9. From 1 and 2. draw vertical projections to meet H. L. at V. P1 and V. P2, thus giving the two vanishing
points.
Techical Terms of a Perspective Projection
1, Picture Plane : The imaginary vertical plane between the observer and the object on which the
perspective is obtained is known as picture plane, it is abbreviated as P.P
perspective is obtained is known as picture plane, it is abbreviated as P.P
2, Ground Line : The Iine of intersection of ground plane and vertical or picture plane is called ground
line. It is denoted by G.L.
3, Station Point : lt is the point of sight where all projectors converge
line. It is denoted by G.L.
3, Station Point : lt is the point of sight where all projectors converge
4, Centre of Vision : The point where the line of vision pierce the picture plane is centre ot vision
5, Horizon : Horizontal line drawn through the centre of vision on the picture plane.
6, Vanishing Ponint : It is a point on the picture plane where all the parallel lines appear to converge. This apparent convergence of parallel lines is termed as vanish. All receding parallel lines which run in the same direction appear to vanish at the same point.
7, Angle of Vision : Draw the plan of the object. Join the station point with two extreme corners ot the
object. These two extreme corner lines enclose the Arc of Vision. The angle formed between these
lines is known as the Angle of Vision.
5, Horizon : Horizontal line drawn through the centre of vision on the picture plane.
6, Vanishing Ponint : It is a point on the picture plane where all the parallel lines appear to converge. This apparent convergence of parallel lines is termed as vanish. All receding parallel lines which run in the same direction appear to vanish at the same point.
7, Angle of Vision : Draw the plan of the object. Join the station point with two extreme corners ot the
object. These two extreme corner lines enclose the Arc of Vision. The angle formed between these
lines is known as the Angle of Vision.
8, Measuring Line : The intersection of the plan of the object with the picture plane gives the true height at the point of intersection, when measured in elevation. So any sidę of the object which lies in picture plane shows the true height of the object. All measurement, in respect of height are to be scaled off on this line for getting their sizes in perspective. Some times measuring line is obtained by extending any edge of the object to meet the picture plane and heights are then measured on this line.
9, Eye Level : It is a line at the eve-level of the observer and is represented by a straight line HL. Its true height is measured from ground line. It is normally kept between 1.50 to 1.80 m. i.e. human height.
9, Eye Level : It is a line at the eve-level of the observer and is represented by a straight line HL. Its true height is measured from ground line. It is normally kept between 1.50 to 1.80 m. i.e. human height.
PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
Perspective view or projection gives the appearance of an object as it appears to the human eye. It is similar to a photographic picture. In a perspective all the projectors appear to meet at a point e.g. it an observer stands in the railway track, the railway lines appear to meet at a point, even the sleepers seem to be shortening in length as they recede from the eye. If such a view is drawn with the help of drawing instrument ona plane, it is known as a perspective projection.
Monday, May 4, 2020
Types Of Three Dimensional Views
1. Isometric projections.
2. Axonometric projections
3. Oblique projections.
4. Perspective projections.
■ Isometric Views
2. Axonometric projections
3. Oblique projections.
4. Perspective projections.
■ Isometric Views
Isometric views are drawn by imagining the objects principal three edges making equal angles with the
plane of projections. The angle kept is 30°. See Fig
plane of projections. The angle kept is 30°. See Fig
■ Axonometric View
Such a view is drawn to show the upper part in clear details. The objects principal edges are imagined to be making 60° on one side and 30° angles on the other side with the horizontal plane. See Fig.
■ Oblique View
When one side of the object is to be clearly shown, this view is used. The front of the object is kept parallel to the plane of projections and one edge is inclined at 30° to 45° to the horizontal. See Fig.
When one side of the object is to be clearly shown, this view is used. The front of the object is kept parallel to the plane of projections and one edge is inclined at 30° to 45° to the horizontal. See Fig.
■ Perspective Projection
Perspective projection shows an object in its true shape as it appears to the eye. See Fig.
Perspective projection shows an object in its true shape as it appears to the eye. See Fig.
TECHNICAL TERMS OF STAIRS
1, STAIRS : Steps arranged in a series for communicating between two floors is known as a star
2,TREAD : The horizontal member which forms the upper surface of a step is called tread.
3, RISER : It is the vertical front portion of a step.
4, RISE : It is the vertical distance between two upper surfaces of two successive steps.
5, NOSING : The front edge of a tread is termed as nosing.
6, LINE OF NOSING : Imaginery line joining the nosings and parallel to the slope of stairs is termed as line of nosing
7,FLIER : A regular and rectangular step is known as flier.
8, FLIGHT : A series of continuous steps between two floors, or floor to landing or landing to landing is
termed as flight.
9, Landing : This is a horizontal platform which is provided between two flights to serve as a rest. It also helps in turning of stair.
10, SLOP or PITCH : The angle between the line of nosing and floor is known as slope.
11, STRINGS or STRINGERS : These are inclined members which support the steps. The strings my be providedon each side of a step or in the centre to support steps as cantülever extending on each side.
12, SOFFIT or PLANTER : Under surface of a flight is called soflit.
13,BALUSTERS : Vertical members which support the hand rail are known as balusters.
14, HAND RAILS : Hand rails are provided on top of balusters. It safe guard's the persons using the stairs. Hand rails may be made of wood, masonry. R.C.C. or synthetiC materials. It can be fixed even to the walls of staircase. Toughened glass is also being used as a railing these days.
15, HEAD ROOM : The vertical distance between the line of nosings and the soffit or landing of a flight
immediately above it is known as head-room. Head-room should not be less than 2.20 metres.
2,TREAD : The horizontal member which forms the upper surface of a step is called tread.
3, RISER : It is the vertical front portion of a step.
4, RISE : It is the vertical distance between two upper surfaces of two successive steps.
5, NOSING : The front edge of a tread is termed as nosing.
6, LINE OF NOSING : Imaginery line joining the nosings and parallel to the slope of stairs is termed as line of nosing
7,FLIER : A regular and rectangular step is known as flier.
8, FLIGHT : A series of continuous steps between two floors, or floor to landing or landing to landing is
termed as flight.
9, Landing : This is a horizontal platform which is provided between two flights to serve as a rest. It also helps in turning of stair.
10, SLOP or PITCH : The angle between the line of nosing and floor is known as slope.
11, STRINGS or STRINGERS : These are inclined members which support the steps. The strings my be providedon each side of a step or in the centre to support steps as cantülever extending on each side.
12, SOFFIT or PLANTER : Under surface of a flight is called soflit.
13,BALUSTERS : Vertical members which support the hand rail are known as balusters.
14, HAND RAILS : Hand rails are provided on top of balusters. It safe guard's the persons using the stairs. Hand rails may be made of wood, masonry. R.C.C. or synthetiC materials. It can be fixed even to the walls of staircase. Toughened glass is also being used as a railing these days.
15, HEAD ROOM : The vertical distance between the line of nosings and the soffit or landing of a flight
immediately above it is known as head-room. Head-room should not be less than 2.20 metres.
Working Strees Method ( one of the basic theory of design)
This method is based on elastic theory. The following assumption are made in designing
1, At any cross-section, plain sections before bending remain plain after bending.
2, All tensile stresses are taken up by steel and none by concrete, except as otherwise specifically allowed.
3, The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete under working loads, is a straight line.
4, Bond of steel and concrete is perfect within the elastic limits of steel and concrete.
5, There are no initial stresses in concrete or steel.
6, The steel area is concentrated at the centroid of steel.
1, At any cross-section, plain sections before bending remain plain after bending.
2, All tensile stresses are taken up by steel and none by concrete, except as otherwise specifically allowed.
3, The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete under working loads, is a straight line.
4, Bond of steel and concrete is perfect within the elastic limits of steel and concrete.
5, There are no initial stresses in concrete or steel.
6, The steel area is concentrated at the centroid of steel.
TYPES OF END CONDITIONS (Free ends, Hinged ends, Fixed ends,)
1 Free End : When the end support of a frame is able to slide over a bearing plate or pad or can role over horizontally placed rollers, it is termed as a free end. This type of end cannot resist any horizons force
and takes only the vertical loads. The reaction at such a supports is always vertical.
2 Hinged Ends : The end which cannot slide but allows the frame to be moved upward is termed as hinged end. This type of end condition can take horizontal as well as vertical loads. The reaction at
such a support can be vertical, horizontal or incined.
3 Fixed Ends : Small frames used for roof trusses etc. have embedded or bolted down ends. These are
termed as fixed ends. The reaction at fixed ends can be in line with loads i.e. inclined for wind loads and vertical for vertical loads.
and takes only the vertical loads. The reaction at such a supports is always vertical.
2 Hinged Ends : The end which cannot slide but allows the frame to be moved upward is termed as hinged end. This type of end condition can take horizontal as well as vertical loads. The reaction at
such a support can be vertical, horizontal or incined.
3 Fixed Ends : Small frames used for roof trusses etc. have embedded or bolted down ends. These are
termed as fixed ends. The reaction at fixed ends can be in line with loads i.e. inclined for wind loads and vertical for vertical loads.
False Ceiling
Under side of upper floors i.e. ceiling when covered with any material, in any form, is termed as false ceiling or decorative ceiling. It does not take any additional loads. Down ward beams, girders, joists, battens, T-iron or under side of trussed roofs (flat or sloping) are covered with different types of materials to form false ceilings. There can be other reasons for the use of false ceilings.
Where False Ceilings are Needed
Recreational buildings. public buildings, residential buildings are provided with false ceilings to increase the interior decorations. False ceilings are also provided to maintain comfortable temperature in buildings.
In air-conditioned buildings, a false ceiling is a necessity. It not only acts as an insulator but also covers the A.C. ducts. It also helps in providing A.C. vents at and where needed.
Theatres, cinema halls, conference halls, home theatre (a new trend in modern residential houses), radio stations. T. V, studios, sound recording studios are provided with false ceilings along with sound proofing. materials to act as an acoustic element, which checks echoes.
All false ceilings are suspended by suspenders supports from the ceiling or underside of the roof. The G.I sheet sections are fixed to form a net. To this, ceiling materials are fixed or moulded as per design pattern and decor.
False ceiling are also used to cover water supply and sewerage drainage pipe systems in multi-storeyed
buildings. Such services are so planned that these are just one above the other to achieve economy in their laying. The false ceilings in for such purposes are made up of thermocoal tiles of smaller sizes (say 600 x 600mm) and placed on aluminium or reinforced plastic T-sections.
Recreational buildings. public buildings, residential buildings are provided with false ceilings to increase the interior decorations. False ceilings are also provided to maintain comfortable temperature in buildings.
In air-conditioned buildings, a false ceiling is a necessity. It not only acts as an insulator but also covers the A.C. ducts. It also helps in providing A.C. vents at and where needed.
Theatres, cinema halls, conference halls, home theatre (a new trend in modern residential houses), radio stations. T. V, studios, sound recording studios are provided with false ceilings along with sound proofing. materials to act as an acoustic element, which checks echoes.
All false ceilings are suspended by suspenders supports from the ceiling or underside of the roof. The G.I sheet sections are fixed to form a net. To this, ceiling materials are fixed or moulded as per design pattern and decor.
False ceiling are also used to cover water supply and sewerage drainage pipe systems in multi-storeyed
buildings. Such services are so planned that these are just one above the other to achieve economy in their laying. The false ceilings in for such purposes are made up of thermocoal tiles of smaller sizes (say 600 x 600mm) and placed on aluminium or reinforced plastic T-sections.
Sunday, May 3, 2020
Constructional Details of Cavity Walls & Drowing Details
The object of cavity wall is to separate the two leaves, therefore, it is essential to provide the cavity immediately above the horizontal D.PC. i.e 150 to 200 above ground level. At the sill level. the sill which may be of stone, cement, concrete or wood, it is extended upto the face of the inner wall. Horzontal D.PC. is also provided above the lintels. The cavity is extended upto bottom or copings in the
parapet. Weep holes are provided to drain off any seepaged water in the cavity
parapet. Weep holes are provided to drain off any seepaged water in the cavity
Cavity Walls From Foundation To Parapet & the Detailed Drowing (see the fig)
Advantages of Cavity Walls
1) As there is no contact between the inner and outer walls there is no possibility of moisture travel ling from the outer leaf to the inner wall.
2) The layer of air in between the walls acts as an insulator and reduces the transferring of heat. Such
walls are most suitable for tropical region, like our country India. It is observed that cavity walls
have 25% more insulating value than solid walls.
3) These walls have good sound insulating properties. These are thus recommended for libraries, radio and T.V. recording rooms.
4) These walls are economical.
2) The layer of air in between the walls acts as an insulator and reduces the transferring of heat. Such
walls are most suitable for tropical region, like our country India. It is observed that cavity walls
have 25% more insulating value than solid walls.
3) These walls have good sound insulating properties. These are thus recommended for libraries, radio and T.V. recording rooms.
4) These walls are economical.
Cavity Walls (short not)
The walls having their thickness constructed in two separate parts with a uniform gap in between are known as cavity or hollow walls. Cavity wall consists of two walls with a 50 to 80 mm gap or cavity between them. the outer wall is known as outer leaf. It is 100 mm thick. The inner wall is thick and strong. It carries the super imposed loads of beams, trusses roofs etc. The minimum allowed thickness for inner walls is T00 mm. These walls are always laid in C. mortar (I: 4) to (I :5). These two walls are held together by impervions material ties.
Saturday, May 2, 2020
Cantilever Retaining Walls. (Short not)
These walls have upper end free and the lower end fixed. These walls are designed as cantilever beams. Maximum concrete and steel is provided near the base and uniformity decreased upward. The wall may be singly or doubly reinforced. The main reinforcement is provided on the inner face. Alternate bars are cut in size so as to decrease the area of reinforcement near the top. This cutting of bars at different levels is known as curtailed reinforcement.
■ Features of a RCC Retaining Walls.
1) These walls are economical upto 6.00 m. height
2) Top thickness is taken as 200 to 500 mm.
3) Base width b is kept 0.5 to 0.6 of the over all height of the wall.
4) Thickness of base slab is normally keptth of over all height.
5) Projection of toe is kept between 1/4 to 1/3 of base width.
6) Front face is kept vertical.
7) Inner face batter is 1 in 12.
■ Features of a RCC Retaining Walls.
1) These walls are economical upto 6.00 m. height
2) Top thickness is taken as 200 to 500 mm.
3) Base width b is kept 0.5 to 0.6 of the over all height of the wall.
4) Thickness of base slab is normally keptth of over all height.
5) Projection of toe is kept between 1/4 to 1/3 of base width.
6) Front face is kept vertical.
7) Inner face batter is 1 in 12.
Friday, May 1, 2020
Framed Connection & Seated Connection ( Short not)
■ Framed Comnections
When the beam is connected to the column flanges by placing cleat angles on either side of the web of a
beam, the connection is called framed connections.
■Seated Comnections
When cleats are connected with the flanges of the horizontal beam for joining it to column, the connection is called a seated connection.
When the beam is connected to the column flanges by placing cleat angles on either side of the web of a
beam, the connection is called framed connections.
■Seated Comnections
When cleats are connected with the flanges of the horizontal beam for joining it to column, the connection is called a seated connection.
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