Methods of Preventing Dampness

(1) By providing a damp proof course.
(2) By surface treatment.
(3) By integral water-proof construction.
(4) By special devices.

Hoists and Cranes

These are used for transporting material and heavy machines from ground level to the upper or lower level as the need be.

Trolley-rope Ways

Trolleys made in the form of cabs are held on guy ropes and operated up and down between two different levels. These are mainly installed to connect two hillocks or two banks of a deep valley.

Ramps and Chutes

These are solid or inclined laid slabs between two floors situated at different levels. The normal gradients are 1 in 20 to 1 in 50. These are used in hospitals, multistoreyed parking area. Swimming pools and children parks also have ramps, which are used for recreational purposes.

Lifts

These are ventilated encased chambers which can be moved up and down in a shaft connecting different floors of a structure. There are high and low speed lifts. Lifts are electrically operated. Certain towers and sky-scrapers have lifts operating on outer faces of the structures. They are fixed with plexiglass and give the users a better view of the outside scenery around.

Escalators

These are steps fixed on very slow moving belts. These are called moving stairs. These help in reducing the climbing time of stairs and are used at public places having very high intensity of public movement. Like bus terminals, railway stations, air ports etc.

Steps

Steps made in the form of a series of rising footing is termed as stair. A couple of steps built in series is known as a flight. Stair can be made into many shapes and designs out of any building material.

Ladders

These are made of two side supports, called up rights, either of wood, bamboo, mild steel, cast iron or pipes spaced with horizontal rungs. These can be portable or fixed as the need be. Wooden rungs held into twisted upright ropes are also very light ladders; these are mainly used in ships, boats and sea- trailors etc. Such ladders are also used for painting and white washing in tall-buildings

Elements of Perspective

Step by step approach in making any perspective is explained by the following elements.

1. Select some suitable scale.
2. Draw the plan-incined or parallel to picture plane. This depends on selection of type of perspective.
3. Draw the line PP showing the picture plane in plan.
4. For making a good two-point perspective, draw one of the faces of the object inclined at 30° in plan.
The other face will be at 60°. It will be better to draw the largest face at 30°.
5. Mark the station point S. P. It should preferably be in the centre of the plan. !It can be placed to the right or left of the centre of plan depending upon the needed detail to be emphasised.
6. Below the plan, at a suitable spacing draw the ground line G. L.
7. Draw the horizon line H. L. at an height equal to the observer and parallel to the ground ine.
8. From S. P. draw lines S. P-1 and S. P-2 parallel to A D and A B to meet the P P line at 1 and 2.
9. From 1 and 2. draw vertical projections to meet H. L. at V. P1 and V. P2, thus giving the two vanishing
points.

Techical Terms of a Perspective Projection

1, Picture Plane : The imaginary vertical plane between the observer and the object on which the
perspective is obtained is known as picture plane, it is abbreviated as P.P

2, Ground Line : The Iine of intersection of ground plane and vertical or picture plane is called ground
line. It is denoted by G.L.

3, Station Point : lt is the point of sight where all projectors converge

4, Centre of Vision : The point where the line of vision pierce the picture plane is centre ot vision

5, Horizon : Horizontal line drawn through the centre of vision on the picture plane.

6, Vanishing Ponint : It is a point on the picture plane where all the parallel lines appear to converge. This apparent convergence of parallel lines is termed as vanish. All receding parallel lines which run in the same direction appear to vanish at the same point.

7, Angle of Vision : Draw the plan of the object. Join the station point with two extreme corners ot the
object. These two extreme corner lines enclose the Arc of Vision. The angle formed between these
lines is known as the Angle of Vision.

8, Measuring Line : The intersection of the plan of the object with the picture plane gives the true height at the point of intersection, when measured in elevation. So any sidę of the object which lies in picture plane shows the true height of the object. All measurement, in respect of height are to be scaled off on this line for getting their sizes in perspective. Some times measuring line is obtained by extending any edge of the object to meet the picture plane and heights are then measured on this line.

9, Eye Level : It is a line at the eve-level of the observer and is represented by a straight line HL. Its true height is measured from ground line. It is normally kept between 1.50 to 1.80 m. i.e. human height.

PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

Perspective view or projection gives the appearance of an object as it appears to the human eye. It is similar to a photographic picture. In a perspective all the projectors appear to meet at a point e.g. it an observer stands in the railway track, the railway lines appear to meet at a point, even the sleepers seem to be shortening in length as they recede from the eye. If such a view is drawn with the help of drawing instrument ona plane, it is known as a perspective projection.

Types Of Three Dimensional Views

1. Isometric projections.

2. Axonometric projections

3. Oblique projections.

4. Perspective projections.

■ Isometric Views

Isometric views are drawn by imagining the objects principal three edges making equal angles with the
plane of projections. The angle kept is 30°. See Fig

■ Axonometric View

Such a view is drawn to show the upper part in clear details. The objects principal edges are imagined to be making 60° on one side and 30° angles on the other side with the horizontal plane. See Fig. 

■ Oblique View
When one side of the object is to be clearly shown, this view is used. The front of the object is kept parallel to the plane of projections and one edge is inclined at 30° to 45° to the horizontal. See Fig. 

■ Perspective Projection
Perspective projection shows an object in its true shape as it appears to the eye. See Fig.

TECHNICAL TERMS OF STAIRS

1, STAIRS : Steps arranged in a series for communicating between two floors is known as a star
2,TREAD : The horizontal member which forms the upper surface of a step is called tread.
3, RISER : It is the vertical front portion of a step.
4, RISE : It is the vertical distance between two upper surfaces of two successive steps.
5, NOSING : The front edge of a tread is termed as nosing.
6, LINE OF NOSING : Imaginery line joining the nosings and parallel to the slope of stairs is termed as line of nosing
7,FLIER : A regular and rectangular step is known as flier.
8, FLIGHT : A series of continuous steps between two floors, or floor to landing or landing to landing is
termed as flight.
9, Landing : This is a horizontal platform which is provided between two flights to serve as a rest. It also helps in turning of stair.
10, SLOP or PITCH : The angle between the line of nosing and floor is known as slope.
11, STRINGS or STRINGERS : These are inclined members which support the steps. The strings my be providedon each side of a step or in the centre to support steps as cantülever extending on each side.
12, SOFFIT or PLANTER : Under surface of a flight is called soflit.
13,BALUSTERS : Vertical members which support the hand rail are known as balusters.
14, HAND RAILS : Hand rails are provided on top of balusters. It safe guard's the persons using the stairs. Hand rails may be made of wood, masonry. R.C.C. or synthetiC materials. It can be fixed even to the walls of staircase. Toughened glass is also being used as a railing these days.
15, HEAD ROOM : The vertical distance between the line of nosings and the soffit or landing of a flight
immediately above it is known as head-room. Head-room should not be less than 2.20 metres.

Working Strees Method ( one of the basic theory of design)

This method is based on elastic theory. The following assumption are made in designing

1, At any cross-section, plain sections before bending remain plain after bending.
2, All tensile stresses are taken up by steel and none by concrete, except as otherwise specifically allowed.
3, The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete under working loads, is a straight line.
4,  Bond of steel and concrete is perfect within the elastic limits of steel and concrete.
5, There are no initial stresses in concrete or steel.
6, The steel area is concentrated at the centroid of steel.

TYPES OF END CONDITIONS (Free ends, Hinged ends, Fixed ends,)

1 Free End : When the end support of a frame is able to slide over a bearing plate or pad or can role over horizontally placed rollers, it is termed as a free end. This type of end cannot resist any horizons force
and takes only the vertical loads. The reaction at such a supports is always vertical.

2 Hinged Ends : The end which cannot slide but allows the frame to be moved upward is termed as hinged end. This type of end condition can take horizontal as well as vertical loads. The reaction at
such a support can be vertical, horizontal or incined.

3 Fixed Ends : Small frames used for roof trusses etc. have embedded or bolted down ends. These are
termed as fixed ends. The reaction at fixed ends can be in line with loads i.e. inclined for wind loads and vertical for vertical loads.

False Ceiling

Under side of upper floors i.e. ceiling when covered with any material, in any form, is termed as false ceiling or decorative ceiling. It does not take any additional loads. Down ward beams, girders, joists, battens, T-iron or under side of trussed roofs (flat or sloping) are covered with different types of materials to form false ceilings. There can be other reasons for the use of false ceilings.

Where False Ceilings are Needed
Recreational buildings. public buildings, residential buildings are provided with false ceilings to increase the interior decorations. False ceilings are also provided to maintain comfortable temperature in buildings.
In air-conditioned buildings, a false ceiling is a necessity. It not only acts as an insulator but also covers the A.C. ducts. It also helps in providing A.C. vents at and where needed.
Theatres, cinema halls, conference halls, home theatre (a new trend in modern residential houses), radio stations. T. V, studios, sound recording studios are provided with false ceilings along with sound proofing. materials to act as an acoustic element, which checks echoes.
All false ceilings are suspended by suspenders supports from the ceiling or underside of the roof. The G.I sheet sections are fixed to form a net. To this, ceiling materials are fixed or moulded as per design pattern and decor.
False ceiling are also used to cover water supply and sewerage drainage pipe systems in multi-storeyed
buildings. Such services are so planned that these are just one above the other to achieve economy in their laying. The false ceilings in for such purposes are made up of thermocoal tiles of smaller sizes (say 600 x 600mm) and placed on aluminium or reinforced plastic T-sections.

Constructional Details of Cavity Walls & Drowing Details

The object of cavity wall is to separate the two leaves, therefore, it is essential to provide the cavity immediately above the horizontal D.PC. i.e 150 to 200 above ground level. At the sill level. the sill which may be of stone, cement, concrete or wood, it is extended upto the face of the inner wall. Horzontal D.PC. is also provided above the lintels. The cavity is extended upto bottom or copings in the
parapet. Weep holes are provided to drain off any seepaged water in the cavity

Cavity Walls From Foundation To Parapet & the  Detailed Drowing (see the fig)

Advantages of Cavity Walls

1) As there is no contact between the inner and outer walls there is no possibility of moisture travel ling from the outer leaf to the inner wall.

2) The layer of air in between the walls acts as an insulator and reduces the transferring of heat. Such
walls are most suitable for tropical region, like our country India. It is observed that cavity walls
have 25% more insulating value than solid walls.

3) These walls have good sound insulating properties. These are thus recommended for libraries, radio and T.V. recording rooms.
4) These walls are economical.

Cavity Walls (short not)

The walls having their thickness constructed in two separate parts with a uniform gap in between are known as cavity or hollow walls. Cavity wall consists of two walls with a 50 to 80 mm gap or cavity between them. the outer wall is known as outer leaf. It is 100 mm thick. The inner wall is thick and strong. It carries the super imposed loads of beams, trusses roofs etc. The minimum allowed thickness for inner walls is T00 mm. These walls are always laid in C. mortar (I: 4) to (I :5). These two walls are held together by impervions material ties.

Cantilever Retaining Walls. (Short not)

These walls have upper end free and the lower end fixed. These walls are designed as cantilever beams. Maximum concrete and steel is provided near the base and uniformity decreased upward. The wall may be singly or doubly reinforced. The main reinforcement is provided on the inner face. Alternate bars are cut in size so as to decrease the area of reinforcement near the top. This cutting of bars at different levels is known as curtailed reinforcement.

■ Features of a RCC Retaining Walls.
1) These walls are economical upto 6.00 m. height
2) Top thickness is taken as 200 to 500 mm.
3) Base width b is kept 0.5 to 0.6 of the over all height of the wall.
4) Thickness of base slab is normally keptth of over all height.
5) Projection of toe is kept between 1/4 to 1/3 of base width.
6) Front face is kept vertical.
7) Inner face batter is 1 in 12.

Framed Connection & Seated Connection ( Short not)

                 ■ Framed Comnections
When the beam is connected to the column flanges by placing cleat angles on either side of the web of a
beam, the connection is called framed connections. 

                ■Seated Comnections
When cleats are connected with the flanges of the horizontal beam for joining it to column, the connection is called a seated connection.

Column to Beam Connection

The steel columns are tied up with horizontal beams at floor levels to support roofs. A skeleton in the form of a frame is thus formed by vertical columns and horizontal beams. The beams may thus be riveted to the flanges or web of vertical column. Column to beam connections are of two types.

(i) Framed Connections.

(ii) Seated Connections.

Abbreviations(Short Forms) used in the field of civil engineering

Abbreviations are short forms of long words or names. These are used to save time & space. 

TERM   and ABBREVIATIONS   

            

ACRE --- ACRE
Aggregate --- AGG
Air-brick --- AB
Angle --- L
AsbestosS --- ASB
At --- @
Beam --- B
Brick work --- BWk
Cast iron --- CI
Cement concrete --- CC
Centre line --- CL
Centre to Centre --- C/C
Centimetre --- cm
Concrete --- cone*
Cross-section --- CS
Cubic metre ---  m3
Cubic centimetre ---cm3
Cubic millimeter ---mm3
Damp Proof Coursee --- DPC
Diameteer ---  Dia: Ø
Drawing --- DRG
Drawn --- DRN
Elevation --- EL
Figures --- FIG
Flushing Cistern --- FC
Formation level --- L
Full supply level --- FSL
Galvanised iron --- GI
Glazed ware pipes --- GWP
Greese trap --- GT
Gram --- gm
Ground level --- GL
Gully --- G
Height --- HT
Inspecton chamber --- ICH
Intercepung trap --- IT
Kilometre --- km
Longitudinal Section --- LS
Manhole --- MH

Metre --- m

Wild steel --- MS

Millimeter --- mm

Natural surface level --- NSL

North --- N

Per --- PER/

Percent --- 

Radius --- R

Rain water outet --- RWO

Rain water pipe --- RWP

Reduced level --- RL

Reference --- REF

Reinforced cement concrete --- R.C.C

Rising main --- RM

Rolled Section --- RS

Rolled steel joist --- RSJ or I

Shower bath --- SB

Sink --- S

Soil and vent pipe --- S & VP

Soil pipe --- SP

Spigot S socket --- S & S

Square --- SO

Square centimeters --- cm2

Square metre --- mm2

Square millimetre --- mm2

Stop valve --- SP

Tee --- T

Temperature --- Temp

Traced --- TCD

Vent pipe --- VP

Volume --- Vol

Waste pipe --- WP

Waste & vent pipe --- W & VP

Water closet --- W.C.

Weight --- Wt.

Wrought iron --- WI

Yard gully --- YG

Year --- Yr or a

Technical Terms Used In Flooring

(a) Base ;- The prepared surface on which the floor topping or under layer is laid is known as base. This normally consists of 100mm thick sand for ground floor. It is also known as base course.

(b) Under layer;- The course of material laid between topping and base is called under layer. It normally consists of lean c. concrete or lime concrete. lts thickness may vary between 80 to 100 mm.

(c) Topping;- The topmost layer of a floor laid over the under layer is known as topping. Sometimes, it forms the finished surface of the floor also. 1ts normal thicknes is taken as 40 mm.

(d) Floor finish: The special layers laid to form their upper surface or wearing surface, which normally
render surface finish is called tloor finish e.g. Mosaic or terrazo finish. It is normally 10 mm. to 30 mm. thick

Types Of Floors

Each type of floor has its own particular merits and thus ditferent type of floors may be used in different rooms at the same floor level.

i) Brick flooring.
(ii) C. Conc. inter locking tiles (precast),
(iii) Flag stone flooring.
(iv) Cement concrete or conglomerate flooring.
(v) Terrazo flooring and terrazo precast tiles tlooring
(vi) Mosaic flooring
(vii) Wooden flooring
(viii) Ceramic, vitreous tiles with different designs and colours floors. (Flooring tiles are stronger than
wall tiles.)

There are other types of floors, like Muram, asphalt, rubber, glass, linoleum floors etc., also. But these are specially used for specific purposes.

The basic concept of a Rcc retaining walls

1) it will not overturn.
2) the soil pressure under the toe will not exceed allowable bearing pressure of the soil.
3) the wall will not slide outward bodily due to thrust.
4) the components of the retaining wall will not rupture. R. C. C. retainin walls are of two types:
(a) The 1or cantilever retaining walls.
(b) The counter fort retaining walls.

R C C Retaining Walls

For greater pressures and high embankments or fillings R. C. C. retaining walls are used. These walls can withstand highly water-logged earth and water pressures. These walls are water tight. Construction of these walls is fast.
Design of these walls is precise and hence economical sections can be made. These walls can be speedily built and thus time and labour is saved.
The R. C. C. walls have a more sliding tendency than masonry walls. To check this the wall base is
sometimes provided with a key beam.

Structureal Forces ( External Force & Internal Force)

A frame structure is normally subjected to two types of forces.

(1) External Forces
These are external loads which a frame has to withstand. Self-weight, dead, live, wind or moving loads are called external forces.

While designing the shape and sizes of different members of a framed structure these loads are calculated by taking into account the type of material used for the frames and the weight of roof covering materials. These loads are systematically allowed to act on the frame. But for calculation purposes it is assumed that the joints share these loads and loads act at joints without causing any bending stresses in the frame's members. Due to these loads members are subjected to internal resistance put up by these members.

(2) Internal Forces
The internal resistance which develops in the members to withstand the eflect of external loads are known as internal forces. These are of two types i.e. Tension and Compression

Any member subjected to tension is called a tie and which is subjected to compression is known as strut.

FRAMED STRUCTURES

A steel structure formed by fabricating a number of steel sections is known as a framed structure. The
members in a frame are arranged in the form of triangles and fastened at joints by frictionless pins.

Retaining walls are classified into the following types according to the materials, used in their construction.

1. Dry stone retaining walls.

2. Masonry walls-Bricks or stones.

3. R. C. C. retaining walls.

Retaining Walls

Walls used to support filled in loose soil, earth or gravel are known as retaiming walks.

Certain walls are used to support the face of a cut-solid ground; such walls are called breast walls.

Abutments and wing walls of culverts, bridges and other irrigation projects are also made in the form of a retaining wall

Roofs are broadly classified into the following types.

1. Pitched, pent or sloping roofs.

2. Flat roofs.

3. Shell roofs and folded slabs, and

4. Domes.

Roofs

A roof is a covering on the enclosure made for a building. It is essentially provided to protect the inhabitants from the eflect of sun, rain, wind, etc... The type of roof depends upon the local climatic requirements. For plain regions, where the rain fall is less as compaired to hilly or coastal areas, flat terraced roofs are used, and for others sloping roofs are used. Light weight roofs consist of trusses and sloping roofs and are thus preferred for factories, godowns, big stadiums etc. where large areas are required to be roofed. Flat roofs help in providing more floor area for use in way of multistoreyed buildings.

Qualification Of Town Planner

Any degree or diploma required for the Associate Membership of the Institute of Town Planners (lndia) or that recognised by the Public Service Commission for the post of Asst. Town Planner.

Qualification Of Engineer

Degree in civil engineering or equivalent qualifications which makes one eligible corporate member of the Institution of Engineers (India).

Qyalification of Architect

Any degree or equivalent qualification in architecture as listed in Architects Act of 1972 or as requited for the Associate Membership of the Indian Institute of Architects and registration with the Council of Architecture.

Qualification of Supervisor

Certificate/diploma in architecture or engineering, prescribed for re- cruitment to non-gazetted services of the government + 5 years experience in building design, construction and supervision. (ITI Draftsman course + 5 years experience or Civil or Arch. Diploma + 2 Yearsexperience)

Role and Qualification of the Designer

■ It is clear that in a building project the designer has a key role in the following respects:

1. As an advisor to the owner regarding the feasibility of the project at the preliminary stage,

2. As a professional assigned to prepare the necessary technical documents to be submitted for development / building permit and later to prepare the specifications, schedule, working
drawings etc.,

3. As a co-ordinator of designs by specialist consultants who may be needed for the work,

4. As an agent of the owner in supervising the work, and

5. As an arbitrator in the building project between the owner and the contractor.

Classification of Building

■ According to the use or occupancy, buildings are classified into 9 major groups and their subdivisions as Follows.

★ 1 Residential Buildings
A-1 Lodging or rooming houses.
A-2 One or two family dwellings.
A-3 Dormitories.
A4 Apartment houses (flats).
A-5 Hotels.

★ 2 Educational Buildings
Any building used for college, school or day care purposes involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation related to the occupancy.

★3 Institutional Buildings
C-1 Hospitals and sanatoria.
C-2 Custodial Institutions (Homes for the aged, orphanages etc.).
C3 Penal and mental institutions (prisons, mental hospitals etc.).

★4 Assembly Buildings
D-1 Theatres with fixed seats for more than 1000 persons.
D-2 Theatres with fixed seats for less than 1000 persons.
D-3 Halis with capacity to hold more than 300 persons but with no permanent seating.
D-4 Halls for less than 300 persons but with no permanent seating.
D-5 Al other assembly buildings not covered in the above.

★ 5 BusinesS Buiiang
E-1 Offices, banks and professional establishments of doctors, lawyers, engineers etc.
E-2 Laboratories and research establishmenis.
E3 Computer installations.

★ 6 Merchantile Buildings
F-1 Shops, stores and markets with area up to 500 sq.m with storage incidental to the sales.
F-2 Underground shoPping centres or departmental stores with area more than 500 sq.m Witn storage and services incidental to the sales.

★ 7 Industrial Building
G-1 Buildings used for low hazard industries.
G-2 Buildings used tOr moderate hazard industries.
G-3 Buildings used tor hnigh hazard industries. (hazard means the possibility of ire, smoke, gas, or explosion endangering the life and
safety of the occupants)

★ 8 Storage Building
Any building primanly used for storage or sheltering of goods, vehicles or animals and witn the presence of relatively small number of persons in proportion to the area. (E.g. warehouses, grain stores, garages, truck terminals, stables etc.).

★ 9 Hazardous Buildings
Buildings used for storage, handling, manufacturing and processing of corrosive, toxic, inflammable, explosive or noxious materials.

Tee Junction

The Tee-junction is formed when two walls meet each other at right angles forming the letter "T" in plan. Cross-walls or partition walls form "T" junctions. Such junctions are laid similar to corner joints in diferent bonds.

STONE MASONRY

The art of construction with stones and mortar is known as stone masonry. Stones when created by breaking rocks are very irregular in shape and size. Quarries, from where rocks are taken out by blasting or other means provide this natural material for construction Purposes. Other stones, known as boulders, are collected from river and stream beds or dislodged from earthen mountains are also used in construction work. These may be used in their natural form or broken into handable sizes for construction purposes. Small bebbles and crushed boulders form the stone ballast or coarse aggregate in forming cement concrete.

Cutting of stones, giving them semi-finished or finished regular even size shapes give them the following type of masonry classitications:

1 Random Rubble Masonry
2 Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry
3 Coursed Random Rubble Masonry
4 Ashlar Masonry

BONDS

The systematic arrangement of laying bricks while making brick work is known as bond.
The bricks, owing to their unitorm size and shape, can be arranged in a variety of patterns, which give
rise to ditterent types of bonds. Bonding is essential to eliminate vertical joints. A wall or pillar having
vertical joints in one line does not behave as a homogenous mass to distribute superimposed loads.

■ Different types of bonds.
★English bond.
★Flemish bond.
★Heading bond.
★Stretching bond.
★Garden wall bond.
★Facing bond.
★Racking bond.
★Dutch bond.
★Enghsh cross bond.

Technical Terms used in brick work.

COURSE

This is a term applied to the row of bricks laid between bed or horzontal joints.
The thackness of each course is taken as 100 mm i.e., 90 + 10 = 100 mm (thickness of brick and
thickness of jount). 

BED JOINT
These are mortar joints normal to the pressure.

QUOINS
The external corner joints of walls are called quoins. Bricks or stone used to form such joints are known as quoins.

PERPENDS
The vertical Joints on the face of wall are called perpends.

STRETCHER
These are bricks laid on the face of walls with their length parallel to the face. A course in which the face brick are stretcher us known as stretcher course

HEADERS
These are bricks laid on the face of the walls with their widih parallel to the face. A course in which the face bricks are headers is known as header course

BATS
Pieces of bricks ate called bats. 1/2 brick is called half bat end 3/4 brick is known as bat.

QUEEN CLOSER
A brick cut length wise into half is known as queen closer. It is used next to quoin header io get is proper bond.

KING CLOSER
These are bricks cut in such a way that one end is half the width of a brick and other and is full width. These are used for lambs and reveals of doors and windows. These are also used as drip course

Types Of Foundation

• Spread footings foundation.
  
• Raft or mat foundation.
  
• Grillage foundation.
• Pile foundation.
• Inverted arch foundation.
• Well foundation.
• Stepped or benched foundation.

What is Foundation (Small Not)

The lowest part of the structure, below the plinth level is known as foundation. The function of a foundation is to distribute the load of the structure over a greater area so as to bring intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil. It should be built on a naturally or artificially created stable ground. Foundationsalso avoid spreading of subsoil and unequal settlement of the structure.

Masonry (Small Not)

The art of construction in brick or stone is known as masonry. When bricks are laid in mortar, it is known as
brick masonry; and if stones are used, it is called stone masonry.

Bricks and stones, if used together at the same "constructional place is called composite masonry. Mudorlime
or cement mortars Is used for binding bricks or stones.

Datailed Drawing

The art of representing technical structures with the help of paper drawing equipment is known as detailed drawing. The following details can be conveyed from a properly drawn drawing.
Shape, sizes, material used, location, placing and planning of different services, in short it conveys the whole formof the structure, on the paper before the materialisation of the structure.

Draughtsmanship

■ Draughtsman 
A person who is skilled or trainesd in the art of making drawings, writing or designs is known as draughsman.

■ Draughtsmanship
The art of making drawings, writings or designs by a trained person is called draughtsmanship.

■ lt is the job of a draughtsman to prepare working drawings of proposed projects or structures. To
execute the skill ettectively and accurately a draughtsman masters the art of Engineering Drawing.

Graphical Symbol For Drains & Pipes

■ A line with dashes = its symbol used for Soil pipe or combined drains

■A dotted chain Line = its Symbol used for Surface Drain

■ A Chain Line = its symbol  used for Pipes at high level

■ Full Line = its symbol used for Pipes at  skirting level

■Interrupted dotted line = its symbol used for pipes under floor

■Parallel double interrupted dotted lines = Its symbol used for Ventilating ducts, Space between the lines, Denotes width of ducts

■Flow of fluid in pipe = Its symbol used for Rise and direction of Flow

■ Flow of Fluid in Pipe = Its symbol used for Fait and direction of flow

Panelled & Glazed Doors

This is a most commonly fitted door. Itsblower is panelled and the upper 2/3 is glazed. It maintains privacy as well as allows light. It is used for schools, hospitals, Office and public building

■ Double Leafed Panelled & Glazed Door

■ Double Leafed Panelled Glazed Door (without Sash Bars)

Framed and Panelled Door

It consists of a framework of styles. rail and muntins or mullions of the same thicknesses. the space between the frames is filled with panels. Panels are sometimes flush with the other frame members or raised. Panels are given some decorative designs so as to add to the apperance of doors. All the frame members are provided with grooves so as to accommodate the panels.

■ Parts of Panelled Doors

■ Single Panel

■ Two Panel

■ Three Panels 

■ Four Panels 

■ Five Panels 

■ Six Panels 

■ Horizontal Six Panels 

■ Board Panels With Gun Shaped Styles

■ Fully Panelled Double Leafed Door

■ Two Panelled (Single Leaf) Foor With 12mm Thick & Moulded Mountings Most Commonly Used